Intellectual Property Expert Witnesses
Business, Financial & Marketing Expert Witness Listings
On this page you will find expert witnesses who may give expert opinions regarding intellectual property (IP). The professionals found through this page may advise regarding infringement and service marks. These experts may provide reports regarding authors, inventors, and IP holders. Experts found through this page may also testify regarding trade secrets, proprietary knowledge, confidential information, patents, software copyrights, and royalties, as well as related topics.
You may limit your search for Intellectual Property expert witnesses to a specific area by selecting a state from the drop down box.
Select Location:
Expert Witnesses
List Your Qualifications by Clicking Here
Featured Experts
Jules H. Kamin (ValuEconomics, Inc.)
Dr. Jules Kamin received his Ph.D. in business economics, finance and management science from the University of Chicago Graduate School of Business, rated #1. He is an expert on economic damages and economic/financial aspects of liability. He brings...
Learn More ›
Ivan Zatkovich (eCompCONSULTANTS)
Internet, telecommunications & information technology specialists for intellectual property consulting and patent litigation including web commerce technologies, web marketing disputes, internet copyright, software contract disputes, e-discovery and network...
Learn More ›
Bruce Abramson, JD, PhD
Bruce Abramson, JD, PhD possesses a rare ability to express complex analyses in simple English. He has deployed this skill in many venues, but his focus for more than two decades has been expert testimony..
Dr. Abramson is an experienced technologist,...
Learn More ›
Gary G. Stringham (Gary Stringham & Associates, LLC)
30+ years in the design and testing of software, firmware, and hardware. (Firmware: software that runs machines and devices.) 15 years with Hewlett-Packard’s LaserJet printer design lab. Named inventor in 12 US patents. Author of the key textbook in hardware/firmware...
Learn More ›
James G. Rice, PhD (Mechanical Engineering IP/Patent Litigation)
Dr. Rice has extensive experience as an expert witness in patent litigation involving issues in Mechanical Engineering. Over the last fourteen years, he has provided litigation support in more than 80 cases including approximately 75 patent cases. This...
Learn More ›
Brian J. Dumont, P.E. (Airflow Sciences Corporation)
Location:
Multiple Locations
Areas of Expertise:
Mr. Brian J. Dumont, P.E. is a registered Professional Engineer in the states of Michigan and North Carolina. He is Technical Director and has been with ASC since September 1996. In this time at ASC,...
John E. Kelly III (Kerberos Solutions, LLC)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Mr. Kelly is a Forensic Engineering Investigator with over 50 years of hands on experience with Diesel, Gasoline, Gas Turbine and Alternatively fueled engines and ancillary equipment. Mr. Kelly has expertise...
Kelly T Hickel, President (Expert Witness Consulting Services, LLC)
Location:
New York
Areas of Expertise:
I bring over 4 decades of experience with Technology, pharma and energy companies. These include giants like 3M and Texas Instruments, a series of startups and restructurings with companies from 1 person...
Todd Stefan (Setec Investigations)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Setec Investigations offers unparalleled expertise in computer forensics and electronic discovery, providing highly personalized, case-specific forensic analysis and litigation support services to assist...
Richard N. Hooper, PhD, PE (Safemachines, PLLC)
Location:
Texas
Areas of Expertise:
I accept a small number of litigation support engagements to complement my regular employment as a professional engineer designing robots and computer controlled machines. My qualifications include peer-reviewed...
Christopher M Daft (River Sonic Solutions LLC)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Award winning, Oxford Educated scientist with experience in patent infringement, product liability, source code analysis and medical devices.
Dr Daft has deposition and trial testimony experience.
Completed...
Troy D. Drewry, MSBE, MEM (Ragin' Cajun Consulting LLC)
Location:
Tennessee
Areas of Expertise:
With 20+ years of design and development experience, Troy Drewry provides forensic engineering, litigation consulting and expert witness testimony regarding medical devices, including biomechanical devices...
Jacqueline A. Chorn (Applied Marketing Science, Inc.)
Location:
Massachusetts
Areas of Expertise:
Jacqueline A. Chorn, PhD is a trained legal psychologist with expertise in survey methodology and statistics. She is a manager and survey expert on the Litigation Support practice at Applied Marketing...
Jessie Stricchiola (Alchemist Media Inc)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Digital discoverability expert, advocate for traffic quality awareness in digital advertising, and activist for algorithmic accountability. 20 year search industry veteran.
O'Reilly author and co-author...
Ali Khoshgozaran (Quandary Peak Research)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Dr. Ali Khoshgozaran is a computer scientist and software technology consultant with over a decade of research, development and management experience in various areas of computer science with leading tech...
Brad T Ulrich (Quandary Peak Research, Inc)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Brad Ulrich is an experienced testifying expert and IP analyst in Computer Software, Smartphones, Mobile Software and Cellular Devices, Web Technologies, Healthcare and Medical Devices and Applications,...
Robert F. Schiffmann (R.F. Schiffmann Associates, Inc.)
Location:
Multiple Locations
Areas of Expertise:
Cases of accidents, fires, murders, medical malpractice, and intellectual property, including patent infringement, involving microwave heating. Broad expertise regarding microwave ovens, food & non-food...
Yaniv Schiff (Forensicon, A QDiscovery Company)
Location:
Illinois
Areas of Expertise:
Based in Chicago, Illinois, Forensicon is the Digital Forensics Division of QDiscovery. We specialize in data recovery, financial investigations, theft of intellectual property, internal investigations,...
Stephen M Zamucen, CPA, CVA, CFE, ABV, CFF, CGMA, MBA (Zamucen & Curren, LLP)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Stephen Zamucen’s (Zamucen & Curren) areas of concentration include Business Valuation, Forensic Accounting, Economic Damages, Fraud Investigation, Eminent Domain, Goodwill Losses, Alter Ego and Mergers...
Brooks L Hilliard (Business Automation Associates, Inc.)
Location:
Arizona
Areas of Expertise:
Brooks Hilliard has more than 40 years of computer industry experience working as a consultant, a computer industry executive, a computer systems developer and a computer and software expert witness in...
Kerrie Merrifield (Axiom Forensics)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
I am an expert witness who specializes in Forensic Accounting, Business Valuation and Litigation Support. I am a CPA and have the following designations; ABV (Accredited in Business Valuation), CFF (Certified...
ForensisGroup, Inc. (The Expert of Experts)
Location:
Multiple Locations
Areas of Expertise:
For over 20 years, ForensisGroup has provided the nation’s top law firms, insurance agencies, government entities and many other industries with highly qualified expert witnesses and consultants. Experts...
Gregory A Pinsonneault (LitiNomics, Inc.)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Mr. Pinsonneault has more than fifteen years of experience providing consulting services and expert testimony for economic, financial, and business issues related to commercial litigation, primarily in...
John Levy (John Levy Consulting)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Dr. John Levy is an expert in the software, computer and data storage industry. He holds 7 U.S. patents, has advised two U.S. District Court judges, has litigation support experience in more than 50 cases...
Monty G Myers (Eureka Software Solutions, Inc.)
Location:
Texas
Areas of Expertise:
Monty G. Myers is the founder and CEO of Eureka Software Solutions Inc. Mr. Myers, with the support of his team at Eureka, has served as a testifying and consulting software expert witness in over 75...
Jason McDonald (Jason McDonald SEO Consulting)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Jason McDonald, Ph.D., is a recognized SEO expert witness with both trial and deposition experience in search engine optimization. He has also worked as an AdWords expert witness in trademark litigation...
Brian A. Berg (Berg Software Design)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Brian Berg has extensive experience with consumer electronics, including data storage devices and interfaces, e.g., Flash Memory, Solid State Disks (SSDs), Disk, Tape, Optical Storage (CD, CD-ROM, DVD,...
Ray Horak (Context Corporation)
Location:
Washington
Areas of Expertise:
Ray Horak is an independent consultant with a general practice in wireline and wireless telecommunications and related fields such as the Internet and Voice over IP. His 40+ years’ experience includes...
Weston Anson (Consor Intellectual Asset Management)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Mr. Anson is a seasoned licensing and marketing professional with a long history of successful programs at firms such as Booz-Allen & Hamilton, Playboy Enterprises and Hang Ten International. He holds...
Larry Chiagouris (BrandMarketing Services, Ltd. (New York, Florida, Connecticut))
Location:
Multiple Locations
Areas of Expertise:
Nationwide Services: Rare combination of an ADVERTISING and MARKETING expert who has substantial experience as BOTH a SENIOR EXECUTIVE and ACCOMPLISHED ACADEMICIAN. Dr. Larry Chiagouris has served as an...
Giora J. Tarnopolsky (TarnoTek)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Giora Tarnopolsky, D.Sc., a physicist, has a sharp eye for technology, science, and math, including HDD, CD, DVD, Blu-Ray, tape, data storage systems, metrology, servo, industrial processes, automotive...
Jeffrey D. Franklin, Ph.D, P.E. (Airflow Sciences Corporation)
Location:
Multiple Locations
Areas of Expertise:
Dr. Franklin, P.E. is a registered Professional Engineer in the state of Michigan. He is Director of CFD and has been with Airflow Sciences Corporation since June 1993. Dr. Franklin has been the lead...
Michael A Einhorn (Media, Technology, and Copyright)
Location:
New Jersey
Areas of Expertise:
Michael A. Einhorn (Ph.D. Yale, economics) is an economist and expert witness active in valuation of intellectual property and complex commercial litigation He specializes in media, technology, copyright,...
Leon A. Kappelman, PhD (Solutions-Organizations-Systems, Inc.)
Location:
Texas
Areas of Expertise:
Professor Leon A. Kappelman, Ph.D. is a research scientist, teacher, author, speaker, and adviser dedicated to helping organizations and individuals better manage their information, technology, human,...
THOMAS J MCNULTY
Location:
Texas
Areas of Expertise:
Tom McNulty has more than 20 years of experience working across the energy value chain. He advises companies, banks, regulators, private capital funds, and attorneys. Tom draws on a rare combination...
John Strawn (S Systems)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Dr. Strawn is a seasoned expert witness specializing in patent litigation with experience in Federal Court, the International Trade Commission, and the US Patent Office. He also handles trade secret and...
Steven G Burgess (Burgess Consulting and Forensics)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Burgess Forensics offers Computer Forensic & Electronic Discovery and Expert Witness Testimony - since 1985.
Burgess offers Macintosh Digital Forensics, Windows Digital Forensics, Cell Phone / Mobile...
Rhonda Harper, MBA (Rhonda Harper LLC)
Location:
Texas
Areas of Expertise:
"I very strongly recommend Rhonda. She’s great to work with, and her work product is absolutely top-shelf." Greenberg & Traurig, LLP
* FORTUNE 100 CMO * GLOBAL AGENCY LEADER * SURVEY EXPERT * COURT...
Anthony Wechselberger (Entropy Management Solutions)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
BROADBAND & MULTIMEDIA CONSULTING & EXPERT WITNESS SERVICES
Specializing in broadband, multimedia and associated technologies, infrastructures and commercial environments, Mr. Wechselberger brings thirty...
J. Richard Claywell, CPA, ABV, ASA, CBA, ICVS, CVA, CM&AA, MAFF, CFD, ABAR
Location:
Texas
Areas of Expertise:
Preparation of valuation reports since 1985 for Exit Planning, Estate and Gift Tax, Buy/Sell Agreements, Adequacy of Life Insurance, Economic Loss Analysis, Partner Disputes, Dissenting Shareholder Actions,...
Jonathan Wells (AJIS Wireless Consulting)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
TESTIFYING WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY EXPERT
Dr. Jonathan Wells is an experienced wireless technology expert, specializing in 2G, 3G and 4G cellular networks (3GPP, GSM, UMTS, WCDMA, HSPA, LTE), RF infrastructure...
Peter Petrovsky PE, ME, CE, IE, A B HAZ & C-12 MULTI-DISCIPLINED ENGINEER & CONTRACTOR (ATECO - ateco@hughes.net, Diversified - dewinc@hughes.net)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Peter Petrovsky, PE, has provided services as a consultant and an expert witness in applied civil and mechanical engineering science, building, infrastructure, and earthwork contracting. His strength and...
Edward Earl Elson (IDCO Forensic Services)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
I have 40 plus years of diverse engineering experience and have earned 30 U.S. Patents including 25 for medical devices. I have the following degrees: B.S.M.E., M.S.M.E., M.S. Mngt.
I have provided...
James C. Paul, P.E. (Airflow Sciences Corporation)
Location:
Multiple Locations
Areas of Expertise:
Mr. Paul, P.E. is a registered Professional Engineer in Michigan and California. He co-founded Michigan-based Airflow Sciences Corporation in 1975 and established the Western Region office in California...
David Tollen (Tech Contracts Academy, LLC)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
David Tollen is an attorney and the author of the American Bar Association's bestseller, THE TECH CONTRACTS HANDBOOK: Cloud Computing Agreements, Software Licenses, and other IT Contracts, for Lawyers...
Giacomo Vacca (Kinetic River Corp.)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Dr. Vacca is President of Kinetic River Corp., a Silicon Valley biomedical instrumentation company focused on cell analysis and in vitro diagnostics. As a consultant, Dr. Vacca specializes in flow cytometry,...
Scott D Hampton (Hampton IP & Economic Consultants, LLC)
Location:
Utah
Areas of Expertise:
Scott Hampton is a Certified Public Accountant and ABV valuation expert with 32 years of accounting and forensic consulting experience.
He has given trial testimony regarding lost profit and reasonable...
Brian Sowers (Applied Marketing Science, inc)
Location:
Massachusetts
Areas of Expertise:
Brian Sowers is a federal and state level qualified consumer survey expert with more than 20 years market research experience. He is a Principal at Applied Marketing Science, a full service market research...
Gabriele Goldaper
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Ms. Goldaper has more than 45 years experience in the Fashion/Garment/Textile Industry. She has practical knowledge as a retailer, manufacturer, and key executive for major clothing companies. She has...
Philip J. O'Keefe, PE (EngineeringExpert.net, LLC)
Location:
Multiple Locations
Areas of Expertise:
Services nationwide.
Philip J. O'Keefe is President of Engineering Expert.net, LLC. He's a licensed Professional Engineer (PE) and certified Model Law Engineer (MLE). He has more than 25 years' experience...
Donald M. May (DMA Economics )
Location:
New York
Areas of Expertise:
Don May is Managing Partner at DMA Economics LLC and possesses over 30 years’ experience in consulting, valuation and litigation support as well as researching, publishing and teaching at the university...
Consolidated Consultants
Location:
Multiple Locations
Areas of Expertise:
Consolidated Consultants (CCc) continues to deliver high quality expert witness and medical expert witness referrals nationwide since 1995. CCc is the only referral service where you can view the full,...
William B Fairley (Analysis & Inference, Inc.)
Location:
Pennsylvania
Areas of Expertise:
A Fellow of the American Statistical Association, published in leading statistical and economics journals and nationally recognized for contributions to law and public policy, A+I Senior Statistician and...
Fred P. Smith, P.E., CSP. (Alpine Engineering & Design, Inc.)
Location:
Utah
Areas of Expertise:
We have been in the consulting engineering field for over 25 years and specialize in the development of equipment in the following industries:
Hydraulically operated equipment, trucks and related equipment,...
Chuck Dutill, P.E., D.F.E. (Heritage Technical Services, Inc.)
Location:
Pennsylvania
Areas of Expertise:
For over 35 years Mr. Dutill has been performing hydrology and environmental engineering nationwide. He has focused on wastewater, stormwater, flooding, sewers, septic systems, groundwater, drainage, runoff,...
Jason Frankovitz (Quandary Peak Research)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
As a programmer, CTO, and inventor, Jason Frankovitz has been in the trenches of technology for more than 20 years. He has worked as a software development manager, technical analyst, and mentor in a wide...
Bill Waites (Compupak Advanced Technology, Inc.)
Location:
Texas
Areas of Expertise:
Bill Waites, IT Forensics Expert Witness and Management Consultant, has 40+ years of industry experience. The past 14+ years I have practiced as a unique Commercial Transactions, Software, and Patent...
Edward G. Brown (Expert Chemistry Services)
Location:
North Carolina
Areas of Expertise:
Dr. Brown has over twenty years of experience as an organic chemist and medicinal chemistry expert. He earned his B.S. degree from the University of California, Berkeley and his Ph.D. from the University...
Christopher K. Wilson (Christopher K. Wilson LLC)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
I have over 25 years' experience designing and implementing vehicle safety technology, driver assistance systems and vehicle automation systems. I have been an expert witness for the last 6 years, submitting...
Chuck Easttom
Location:
Texas
Areas of Expertise:
Chuck Easttom has over 25 years of computer industry experience, coupled with 2 masters degrees and over 40 industry certifications. His experience includes software engineering, database design, network...
Joel Delman (Informed Innovation)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
A former corporate and intellectual property lawyer, I graduated Harvard Law School and later earned a Master's in Industrial Design at Pratt Institute. I've spent the past 24 years guiding innovation...
Sigurd Meldal (Quandary Peak Research)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Sigurd Meldal is a Professor in the Department of Computer Engineering at San Jose State University and the Director of the Cybersecurity + Big Data Initiative at SJSU. Dr. Meldal has testified in federal...
Antonio Sarabia II
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Apparel: During his 25 years of experience, Mr. Sarabia has become intimately familiar with the many business problems - and legal issues - which fashion companies may face. The start of his apparel...
Mark C Nicely (Nicely Done Defense)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Extensive casino industry experience with respect to patents, trademarks, casino operations and gambling taxation.
300+ gaming titles released
150+ granted US patents (more pending)
40+ types of game/gambling...
Larry Steven Londre (Londre Marketing Consultants / USC / Pepperdine / CSUN)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Marketing, Business and Advertising Expert. Problem Solver. Nationally known and respected Marketing, Advertising professional in both practice and theory. Business, Marketing and Media Executive. Experienced...
Ben Levitan (Telecommunications Expert)
Location:
North Carolina
Areas of Expertise:
Wireless, Cellular, PCS, Internet and Telephony Expert Witness Services.
Ben Levitan is one of the most sought after legal expert witnesses in multiple telephone and data technological areas. A proven...
Meyer R. Rosen (CPC, CChE, CFEI, FRSC, FAIC, FACFE, DABFET)
Location:
New York
Areas of Expertise:
Mr. Meyer R. Rosen has over thirty-five years of industrial experience in chemistry and chemical engineering. He also has 15 years experience as an Adjunct Professor of Fire Science. He serves as an expert...
Fari Barzegar, Ph.D., P.E. (Habitat Engineering & Forensics, Inc.)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Expert consultant/witness in over 70 cases with testimony/trial experience. Dr. Barzegar is a licensed professional engineer providing a broad range of services in civil/structural engineering and construction...
Dr. / Professor J. Rasty, Ph.D., PE, CFEI, CFII, President & CEO (Real World Forensic Engineering)
Location:
Texas
Areas of Expertise:
Since 1988, Real-World Forensic Engineering, LLC (“RWFE”) has provided engineering services to industries and government labs, as well as litigation support to both plaintiff and defense attorneys practicing...
Dale E. Boisso (BOISSO & ASSOCIATES)
Location:
Texas
Areas of Expertise:
BOISSO & ASSOCIATES is an economic consulting firm working with clients throughout the United States. Dr. Boisso provides expert witness services in evaluating economic losses in commercial and business...
Kevin W. Linfield, Ph.D., P.Eng., P.E. (Airflow Sciences Corporation)
Location:
Multiple Locations
Areas of Expertise:
Dr. Linfield, P.Eng., P.E. is a registered Professional Engineer in Ontario and Michigan. He is Engineering Director of Airflow Sciences Corporation and has been with the company since January 2000. He...
Jonathan H Bari (Bari Consulting Group)
Location:
Pennsylvania
Areas of Expertise:
Jonathan (Jon) H. Bari has over 29 years of professional experience in the marketing and technology industries, including over 22 years working with and teaching about Internet businesses.
Mr. Bari...
Scott O. Ganaja, P.E. (Progressiv Engineering, Inc.)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Scott Ganaja specializes in the design and manufacture of exercise, medical, bicycling, and consumer products. He is experienced in matters involving products liability, intellectual property, and manufacturing....
Gerald J Hietpas, P.E. (Causey Engineering, LLC)
Location:
Texas
Areas of Expertise:
Since 1983, 94% of our 565 Industrial Cases have settled OUT OF COURT – as representatives for Insurers, Defense and Plaintiff Attorneys. Our Principals and Associates have in depth expertise in a broad...
Samuel R. Phillips, PE (Samuel R. Phillips, Consulting Engineer)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
PRODUCT ENGINEERING DESIGNER AND MANUFACTURING CONSULTANT
Samuel R. Phillips is a consultant experienced in product engineering design, development, and manufacturing. From the 1980s, building upon...
Michael Nranian (AUTOMOTIVE DESIGN ANALYSIS L.L.C.)
Location:
Michigan
Areas of Expertise:
Michael Nranian Intellectual Property, Patent Litigation, Legal and Technical Compliance, Product Liability Litigation. Licensed attorney in Michigan, Texas, the United States Patent and Trademark Office,...
Robert O. Peruzzi, PhD, PE
Location:
Pennsylvania
Areas of Expertise:
Licensed Professional Electrical Engineer with particular expertise in Mixed-Signal Integrated Circuits. Experience and skills bridge the gap between methodologies used by the digital, analog and radio...
Heinz E. Ickert, CPA/CFF, CPE, CVA (Heinz E. Ickert LLC)
Location:
Ohio
Areas of Expertise:
Mr. Ickert is an experienced forensic accountant certified in financial forensics by the AICPA and fraud related matters by the ACFE.
A certified public accountant, he has performed damage calculations...
Bruce Silverman (SILVERMAN CONSULTING LLC)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Bruce Silverman is one of America’s most respected marketing-communication and branding experts. He served as EVP/Executive Creative Director at three of America’s largest advertising agencies, as President...
Stephen P Magee (Magee and Magee)
Location:
Texas
Areas of Expertise:
PhD in Economics from MIT; Prof of Finance & Economics, Univ of Texas at Austin; economic adviser to the White House for 4 different presidents; testified in 100+ damage cases (patent infringement, damages...
H. Clark Bell Ph.D., P.E.
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Communications and electronics including radio frequency (RF), microwave, RFID and EAS; electrical and electromechanical equipment; manufacture of engineered products; patents and trade secrets; personal...
Michael Pirrung (Pirrung Consulting)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Michael Pirrung was trained as a synthetic organic chemist via academic studies at UT-Austin, UC-Berkeley, and Columbia University. He has held faculty positions in Chemistry departments at Stanford, Duke,...
Michael F Arrigo (No World Borders, Inc. (Seattle, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Orange County, Denver, Chicago, Dallas, New York, Boston, Nashville, Miami))
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Legal Experience
(See separate document for list of cases, testimony, basis for opinions)
Recent reference able work for U.S. Department of Justice. Two time DOJ expert, engagement on $900 million...
Howard J Cohen (Cohen Software Consulting, Inc.)
Location:
California
Areas of Expertise:
Dr. Cohen has over 30 years experience in the architecture and implementation of complex software applications, ranging from bioinformatics (genomics and proteomics) to chip design tools, from banking...
Intellectual Property Expert Witnesses by State
Alaska, Alabama, Arkansas, Arizona, California, Colorado, Connecticut, District of Columbia, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Iowa, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Maryland, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Mississippi, Montana, North Carolina, North Dakota, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, Nevada, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Vermont, Washington, Wisconsin, West Virginia, Wyoming